The 1862–63 United States Senate elections were held from January 4, 1862, to November 13, 1863. Regularly scheduled elections were held for 20 out of the 70 seats in the United States Senate, and special elections were held in Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, Oregon, and Rhode Island. The Republican–Union coalition retained their majority despite an unfavorable national environment.
U.S. senators are divided into three classes whose six-year terms are staggered, such that one-third of the Senate is elected every two years. Senators in Class 1 were elected in 1862 and 1863. Prior to the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, senators were elected by the U.S. state legislatures. There was no fixed calendar, and states held elections on various dates preceding the first session of Congress. In states with split partisan control of the legislature, multiple rounds of voting could be required to elect a senator, leading to extended vacancies.
While Democrats made significant gains in the 1862–63 United States House of Representatives elections and won important state races in Illinois, Indiana, and New York, the party failed to improve its standing in the Senate and instead suffered a net loss of seats. Republican–Unionists flipped Democratic-held seats in California, Oregon, and Minnesota, while Democrats flipped Republican-held seats in Illinois and Pennsylvania. In Indiana and New Jersey, Democrats defeated Republican–Union incumbents appointed to fill vacancies caused by the expulsion or death of a Democratic senator. Radical Unionists gained both Missouri seats held by Democrats prior to 1862, and Constitutional Unionists flipped a Republican-held seat in Rhode Island. No election was held in Tennessee following the resignation of Democrat Andrew Johnson, increasing the number of vacancies to 20.
The death of James A. Pearce of Maryland reduced the Democratic caucus to nine seats before the start of the 38th Congress. The Missouri Radical Unionists, both Union senators from West Virginia, and Constitutional Unionist William Sprague IV of Rhode Island subsequently caucused with the Republican–Union majority, increasing their caucus to 36 seats.
Background The elections took place against the backdrop of the American Civil War and the end of slavery in the United States in what was the first real test of Democratic opposition to the Lincoln administration. The war disrupted established party systems in the free states and the loyal border states, resulting in a partial political realignment. In the Lower North, Republicans and War Democrats contested these elections as the Union Party, while Republicans maintained a separate organization in New England and the Upper Midwest. In Massachusetts and Rhode Island, anti-abolitionist conservatives formed new political parties composed of most Democrats and Constitutional Unionists. In the border states, Unionists were ascendant but internally divided over issues relating to slavery and Reconstruction, resulting in protracted legislative battles in Missouri and West Virginia.
Emancipation and the status of freedpeople were major issues during the campaign and a significant factor in party alignments. Lincoln's initial plan of gradual, compensated emancipation paired with the colonization of freedpeople outside the United States was jointly rejected by abolitionists who favored immediate, unqualified emancipation, and by Democrats and conservatives who opposed emancipation altogether. Radical Republican opposition to any compromise with slavery was the catalyst for the formation of the People's Party in Massachusetts, who campaigned in support of Lincoln's proposal. The manner and timing of emancipation split the Missouri unionist movement, leading Immediate Emancipationists to organize the Radical Union Party in September 1863. The appearance of the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation in September 1862 interrupted the campaign and undercut the momentum of pro-Lincoln conservatives.
Democrats attempted to capitalize on racist backlash to the proclamation, warning that emancipation would precipitate slave rebellions and large-scale Black migration to the free states, and charging the administration of prolonging the war in service of religious fanaticism. While radical Republicans celebrated the proclamation, moderates and conservatives feared the president's policy spelled electoral defeat. In Ohio, Republican–Unionists avoided mention of slavery in their state platform, and the Indiana Union Party called for the restoration of the Union with the rights of the states fully intact.
Results summary Parties Total Democratic Republican–Union Union Radical Union Others Vacant Last elections (1860–61) 31 31 — — 1 5 68 Before these elections 9 33 6 — — 20 68 Not up 5 19 2 — — 16 42 2 8 1 — — 9 20 3 11 1 — — 7 22 Up 4 14 4 — — 6 28 3 12 3 — — 4 24 1 2 1 — — — 3 — 3 1 — — — 5 — — — — — 2 2 General election 1862 — 3 1 — — — 4 — 2 1 — — — 3 1 Republican replaced by 1 Constitutional Unionist 1 — 2 1 — 1 — 4 1863 3 9 2 — — 6 20 1 6 1 — — 4 12 3 Republican–Unionists replaced by 3 Democrats 2 Democrats replaced by 2 Republican–Unionists 2 vacancies replaced by 2 Unionists 1 Unionist replaced by 1 Radical Unionist 8 5 8 3 1 1 4 22 Special election 1862 1 2 — — — — 3 — 1 — — — — 1 1 Democrat replaced by 1 Republican–Unionist 1 Republican–Unionist replaced by 1 Constitutional Unionist 2 — 2 — — 1 — 3 1863 — 3 2 — — — 5 — — 1 — — — 1 3 Republican–Unionists replaced by 3 Democrats 1 Unionist replaced by 1 Radical Unionist 4 3 2 1 1 — — 8 Result 10 31 6 2 1 20 70 1 1 70 5 2 2 1 70
Maps
Change in composition Each block represents one of the 68 seats in the U.S. Senate. (The admission of West Virginia on June 20, 1863, increased the number of seats in the Senate to 70.) "CU" is a Constitutional Union senator, "D" is a Democratic senator, "Rad" is a Radical Union senator, "R" is a Republican senator, "RU" is a Republican–Union senator, "U" is a Union senator, and "V" is a vacant seat. They are arranged so that the parties are separated, and a majority is clear by crossing the middle.
Before the elections V V V V V V V V V V D D D D D D D D D D D D D D U U U U R R R R R R Majority → R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R V V V V V R R R R R V V V V
After the elections Unionist Thomas H. Hicks was appointed to fill the vacancy created by the death of James A. Pearce of Maryland, flipping the seat from Democratic to Union.
V V V V V V V V V V D D D D D U U U U U U D D D D U Rad Rad CU RU RU RU RU RU RU Majority → RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU V V V V V RU RU RU RU RU V V V V V
Beginning of the first session Five senators elected as border state Unionists (Peter G. Van Winkle and Waitman T. Willey of West Virginia), Radical Unionists (B. Gratz Brown and John B. Henderson of Missouri), or Constitutional Unionists (William Sprague of Rhode Island) caucused with the Republican–Union majority after the start of the 38th Congress, increasing their caucus to 36 seats.
V V V V V V V V V V D D D D D RU U U U U U D D D D RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU Majority → RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU RU V V V V V RU RU RU RU RU V V V V V
Key: CU Constitutional Union D Democratic Rad Radical Union R Republican RU Republican–Union U Union V Vacant
Race summaries
Special elections during the preceding Congress Special elections were held to fill six vacancies in the 37th United States Congress.
State Incumbent This race Senator Party Electoralhistory Results Candidates Michigan(Class 2) Kinsley S. Bingham 1858 Incumbent died October 5, 1861.New member elected January 4, 1862.Republican hold. First ballot Oregon(Class 2) Benjamin Stark 1862 Interim appointee retired.New senator elected September 12, 1862.Union gain. Thirtieth ballot Rhode Island(Class 1) James F. Simmons 18411847 18571862 Incumbent resigned August 15, 1862.New senator elected September 5, 1862.Constitutional Union gain. First ballot Missouri(Class 1) John B. Henderson Union 1862 Interim appointee elected as an Emancipationist January 6, 1863.Emancipation gain. First ballot Illinois(Class 2) Orville H. Browning 1861 Interim appointee retired.New member elected January 12, 1863.Democratic gain. First ballot Indiana(Class 1) Joseph A. Wright Union 1862 Interim appointee retired.New member elected January 14, 1863.Democratic gain. First ballot New Jersey(Class 1) Richard S. Field Union 1862 Interim appointee lost re-election January 14, 1863.Democratic gain. First ballot
Elections leading to the next Congress Eighteen senators were elected for the term beginning March 4, 1863.
State Incumbent This race Senator Party Electoralhistory Results Candidates California Milton Latham 1860 Incumbent retired.Union gain. First ballot Connecticut James Dixon 1856 Incumbent re-elected as a Unionist.Union gain. First ballot Delaware James A. Bayard 18511857 Incumbent re-elected. First ballot Florida Vacant Seat vacant since March 14, 1861.No election. None. Indiana Joseph A. Wright Union 1862 Interim appointee lost re-election.Democratic gain. First ballot Maine Lot M. Morrill 1861 Incumbent re-elected. First ballot Maryland Anthony Kennedy Union 1856–57 Incumbent retired.Union hold. First ballot Massachusetts Charles Sumner 18511857 Incumbent re-elected. First ballot Michigan Zachariah Chandler 1857 Incumbent re-elected. First ballot Minnesota Henry Mower Rice 1858 Incumbent retired.Republican gain. First ballot Mississippi Vacant Seat vacant since March 14, 1861.No election. None. Missouri John B. Henderson Emancipation 1863 Incumbent re-elected as a Radical Unionist.Radical Union gain. First ballot New Jersey James W. Wall 1863 Incumbent lost re-nomination.Democratic hold. First ballot New York Preston King 1857 Incumbent lost renomination as a Unionist.Union gain. First ballot Ohio Benjamin Wade Union 18511856 Incumbent re-elected. First ballot Pennsylvania David Wilmot 1861 Incumbent lost renomination as a Unionist.Democratic gain. First ballot Rhode Island James F. Simmons 18411847 1857 Incumbent lost re-election.Constitutional Union gain.Incumbent resigned August 15, 1862, leading to a special election; see above. First ballot Tennessee Vacant Seat vacant from March 4, 1862.No election. None. Texas Vacant Seat vacant from July 11, 1861.No election. None. Vermont Solomon Foot 18501856 Incumbent re-elected. First ballot Virginia Waitman T. Willey Union 1861 Incumbent lost re-election.Union hold. Second ballot West Virginia None (new state) Seat created June 20, 1863.Union gain. First ballot Sixth ballot Seat created June 20, 1863.Union gain. Wisconsin James R. Doolittle 1857 Incumbent re-elected. First ballot
Special elections during the next Congress In these elections, the winners were elected in 1863 after March 4; ordered by election date.
State Incumbent This race Senator Party Electoralhistory Results Candidates Missouri(Class 3) Robert Wilson Union 1862 Interim appointee retired.New member elected November 13, 1863.Radical Union gain. 32nd ballot
California
Incumbent Democrat Milton Latham was elected in 1860 to fill the vacancy created by the death of David C. Broderick. He was not a candidate for re-election.
The Union members of the legislature held a caucus from January 13 to February 9, 1863. Timothy G. Phelps, John Conness, Aaron A. Sargent, and Trenor W. Park were the major candidates. Phelps led on the first ballot, but without a majority. During the balloting, an internal inquiry found that Phelps's supporters had offered bribes to several members in exchange for their votes. Although Phelps denied the allegations, the stigma of corruption in effect ended his candidacy. Conness was nominated on the final ballot with 60 votes to 29 for Sargent, three for Phelps, and eight for other candidates.