Hindu deities are the gods and goddesses in Hinduism. Deities in Hinduism are as diverse as its traditions, and a Hindu can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, or even agnostic, atheistic or humanistic.Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd edition, Routledge, , p. 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."Lester Kurtz (ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, , Academic Press, 2008M. K. Gandhi, The Essence of Hindu, Editor: V. B. Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see p. 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu." The terms and epithets for deities within the diverse traditions of Hinduism vary, and include Deva, Devi, Ishvara, Ishvari, Bhagavān and Bhagavati.Radhakrishnan and Moore (1967, Reprinted 1989), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, , pp. 37-39, 401-403, 498-503
The deities of Hinduism have evolved from the Vedic era (2nd millennium BCE) through the medieval era (first millennium CE), regionally within Nepal, Pakistan, India and in Southeast Asia, and across Hinduism's diverse traditions.Nicholas Gier (2000), Spiritual Titanism: Indian, Chinese, and Western Perspectives, State University of New York Press, , pp. 59-76Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, , pp. 253-262 The Hindu deity concept varies from a personal god as in Yoga school of Hindu philosophy,Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, , pp. 39-41;Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. 38-39;Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientific Basis, Dover, , pp. 56-58 to thirty-three major deities in the Vedas, to hundreds of deities mentioned in the Puranas of Hinduism.Sanjukta Gupta (2013), Lakṣmī Tantra: A Pāñcarātra Text, Motilal Banarsidass, , p. 166 Examples of modern major deities include Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha and Devi. These deities have distinct and complex personalities, yet are often viewed as aspects of the same Ultimate Reality called Brahman.Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. 77-78 From ancient times, the idea of equivalence has been cherished for all Hindus, in its texts and in early first-millennium sculpture with concepts such as Harihara (Half Vishnu, Half Shiva)David Leeming (2001), A Dictionary of Asian Mythology, Oxford University Press, , p. 67 and Ardhanārīshvara (half Shiva, half Parvati),Ellen Goldberg (2002), The Lord who is half woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and feminist perspective, State University of New York Press, , pp. 1–4 with myths and temples that feature them together, declaring they are the same.TA Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol. 2, Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. 334-335Fred Kleiner (2012), Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Global History, Cengage, , pp. 443-444Cynthia Packert Atherton (1997), The Sculpture of Early Medieval Rajasthan, Brill, , pp. 42-46 Major deities have inspired their own Hindu traditions, such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism, but with shared mythology, ritual grammar, theosophy, axiology and polycentrism.Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, , pp. 562-563Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, , pp. 371-375 Some Hindu traditions, such as Smartism from the mid 1st millennium CE, have included multiple major deities as henotheistic manifestations of Saguna Brahman, and as a means to realizing Nirguna Brahman.Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, , pp. 124-127 In Samkhya philosophy, Devata or deities are considered as "natural sources of energy" who have Sattva as the dominant Guna.
Hindu deities are represented with various icons and anicons in sculptures and paintings, called Murtis and Pratimas.Klaus Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, State University of New York Press, , pp. 264-267PK Acharya, An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture, Oxford University Press, p. 426 Some Hindu traditions, such as ancient Charvakas, rejected all deities and concept of god or goddess,V. V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon - Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (p. 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Charvaka school."John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, , p. 150A Goel (1984), Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science, Sterling, , pages 149-151;R. Collins (2000), The Sociology of Philosophies, Harvard University Press, , p. 836 while 19th-century British colonial era movements such as the Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj rejected deities and adopted monotheistic concepts similar to Abrahamic religions.Glyn Richards (1990), The World's Religions: The Religions of Asia (Editor: Friedhelm Hardy), Routledge, , pp. 173-176 Hindu deities have been adopted in other religions such as Jainism,John E. Cort (1998), Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History, State University of New York Press, , pp. 218-220 and in regions outside India, such as predominantly Buddhist Thailand and Japan, where they continue to be revered in regional temples or arts.Ellen London (2008), Thailand Condensed: 2,000 Years of History & Culture, Marshall Cavendish, , p. 74Trudy Ring et al. (1996), International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania, Routledge, , p. 692
In ancient and medieval era texts of Hinduism, the human body is described as a temple,Jean Holm and John Bowker (1998), Sacred Place, Bloomsbury Academic, , pp. 76-78Michael Coogan (2003), The Illustrated Guide to World Religions, Oxford University Press, , p. 149 and deities are described to be parts residing within it,Alain Daniélou (2001), The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism, , pp. 82-83Patrick Olivelle (1992), The Samnyasa Upanisads, Oxford University Press, , pp. 147-148 with footnotes 2 and 5 while the Brahman (Absolute Reality, God)For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press, , pp. 51-58, 111-115;For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis - Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pp. 18-35 is described to be the same, or of similar nature, as the Atman (Self), which Hindus believe is eternal and within every living being.R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, , pp. 345-347
Devas and devis
Deities in Hinduism are referred to as Deva (masculine) and Devi (feminine).Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary" Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 496John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (1998), Devi: Goddesses of India, Motilal Banarsidass, , p. 2William K Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, , p. 18 The root of these terms means "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence".Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary" Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 492
In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Asuras.Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, , pp. 5-11, 22, 99-102Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary" Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 121 By the late Vedic period (c. 500 BCE), benevolent supernatural beings are referred to as Deva-Asuras. In post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. In some medieval Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their equally powerful, but malevolent counterparts referred to as the Asuras.Encyclopædia Britannica
Hindu deities are part of Hindu mythology, both Devas and Devis feature in one of many cosmological theories in Hinduism.Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology, Brill Academic, , pp. 23-29Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, , p. 67
Characteristics of Vedic-era deities In Vedic literature, Devas and Devis represent the forces of nature and some represent moral values (such as the Adityas, Varuna, and Mitra), each symbolizing the epitome of specialised knowledge, creative energy, exalted and magical powers (Siddhis).George Williams (2008), A Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, , pp. 24-33Bina Gupta (2011), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Routledge, , pp. 21-25
The most referred to Devas in the Rigveda are Indra, Agni (fire) and Soma, with "fire deity" called the friend of all humanity. Indra and Soma are two celebrated in a yajna fire ritual that marks major Hindu ceremonies. Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra (later given the exclusive epithet of Shiva), and Prajapati (later Brahma) are gods and hence Devas.Hajime Nakamura (1998), A Comparative History of Ideas, Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. 26-33
The Vedas describes a number of significant Devis such as Ushas (dawn), Prithvi (earth), Aditi (cosmic moral order), Saraswati (river, knowledge), Vāc (sound), Nirṛti (destruction), Ratri (night), Aranyani (forest), and bounty goddesses such as Dinsana, Raka, Puramdhi, Parendi, Bharati, Mahi, among others, mentioned in the Rigveda.David Kinsley (2005), Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press, , pp. 6-17, 55-64 Sri, also called Lakshmi, appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre-Buddhist, but verses dedicated to her do not suggest that her characteristics were fully developed in the Vedic era.David Kinsley (2005), Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press, , pp. 18, 19 All gods and goddesses are distinguished in the Vedic times, but in the post-Vedic texts (c. 500 BCE to 200 CE), and particularly in the early medieval era literature, they are ultimately seen as aspects or manifestations of one Brahman, the Supreme power.Christopher John Fuller (2004), The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India, Princeton University Press, , p. 41