Mycoplasma genitalium (also known as MG, Mgen, or since 2018, Mycoplasmoides genitalium) is a sexually transmitted, small pathogenic bacterium that lives on the mucous epithelial cells of the urinary and genital tracts in humans. Medical journals in 2007 and 2015 reported that Mgen had become more common. Resistance to multiple antibiotics, including the macrolide azithromycin, until recently the most reliable treatment, is becoming prevalent. The bacterium was first isolated from the urogenital tract of humans in 1981 and was identified as a new species of Mycoplasma in 1983. It increases the risk of HIV spread in men and women,World Health Organization (WHO). Laboratory diagnosis of sexually transmitted infections, including human immunodeficiency virus. Switzerland: World Health Organization 2013 with higher occurrences in those previously treated with azithromycin antibiotics.Barberá M, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium macrolide and fluoroquino-lone resistance: prevalence and risk factors among a 2013–2014 cohort of patients in Barcelona Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Spain, 2017; In Press
Symptoms of infection Mgen is a bacterium recognized for causing urethritis in both men and women along with cervicitis and pelvic inflammation in women. It presents clinically similar symptoms to that of Chlamydia trachomatis infection and has shown higher incidence rates, compared to both Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections in some populations.
Infection with Mgen can be symptomatic or asymptomatic. Both men and women may experience inflammation in the urethra (urethritis), characterized by mucopurulent discharge in the urinary tract, and burning while urinating. In women, it causes cervicitis and pelvic inflammatory diseases (PID), including endometritis and salpingitis. Women may also experience bleeding after sex and it is also linked with tubal factor infertility. For men, the most common signs are painful urination or a watery discharge from the penis.
There is a consistent association of M. genitalium infection and female reproductive tract syndromes. M. genitalium infection was significantly associated with increased risk of preterm birth, spontaneous abortion, cervicitis, and pelvic inflammatory disease. In addition, this pathogen may latently infect the chorionic villi tissues of pregnant women, thereby impacting pregnancy outcome. Infertility risk is also strongly associated with infection with M. genitalium, although evidence suggests it is not associated with male infertility. When M. genitalium is a co-infectious agent risk associations are stronger and statistically significant.
Polymerase chain reaction analyses indicated that it is a cause of acute non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU) and probably chronic NGU. It is strongly associated with persistent and recurring non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU), responsible for 15 percent to 20 percent of symptomatic NGU cases in men.Lis R, Rowhani-Rahbar A, Manhart LE. Mycoplasma genitalium infection and female reproductive tract disease: a meta-analysis. Clin InfeAIDSct Dis. 2015;61(3):418-426 Unlike other mycoplasmas, the infection is not associated with bacterial vaginosis. It is highly associated with the intensity of HIV infection. Some scientists are performing research to determine if Mgen could play a role in the development of prostate and ovarian cancers and lymphomas in some individuals. These studies have yet to find conclusive evidence to suggest a link.
Epidemiology Prevalence of Mgen varies among different populations. Countries with lower Human Development Indices (HDI) may have a higher prevalence of Mgen in the general population than those of higher HDI countries. However, when comparing specific variables such as sex, there are no statistical differences between the two groups.
Genome
The genome of M. genitalium strain G37T consists in one circular DNA molecule of 580,070 base pairs. Scott N. Peterson and his team at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill reported the first genetic map using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis in 1991. They performed an initial study of the genome using sequencing in 1993, by which they found 100,993 nucleotides and 390 protein-coding genes. Collaborating with researchers at The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR; now the J. Craig Venter Institute), which included Craig Venter, they completed the genome sequence in 1995 using shotgun sequencing. Only 470 predicted coding regions were identified in 1995, including genes required for DNA replication, transcription and translation, DNA repair, cellular transport, and energy metabolism. It was the second complete bacterial genome ever sequenced, after Haemophilus influenzae. Later data from KEGG reports 476 protein-coding genes and 43 RNA genes, totaling 519. It is unclear where the "525" gene count for the G37T stems from and what gene calling procedure was used. The current genome annotation in the Uniprot reference proteome lists 483 proteins.
Gene and protein function annotation In the original genome sequence, 374 of the 470 predicted proteins had at least a "putative" function assigned. 96 genes had no matches to any known proteins in other organisms. In 2025, 30 years after the genome was published, 26 proteins are still annotated (in Uniprot) as "probable" (e.g. rbgA/MG442 is probably the ribosome biogenesis GTPase A) and 28 proteins are annotated as "putative" (e.g. MG125 is a Putative phosphatase [EC 3.1.3.-]). 146 proteins remain annotated as "uncharacterized", with about a dozen having some predicted function. The function of more than 100 proteins thus appears to remain largely mysterious.
In 2006, the team at the J. Craig Venter Institute reported that only 382 genes are essential for biological functions. The small genome of M. genitalium made it the organism of choice in The Minimal Genome Project, a study to find the smallest set of genetic material necessary to sustain life.
Variation across genomes There is limited divergence among clinical strains of M. genitalium. All strains retain the small genome size. Though, the mgpB gene displays high variability due to recombination.
In 2026, gene prediction analysis using Geneious Prime, and later confirmed by PCR, revealed that 59% of M. genitalium sequences contained translocations of 16S, 23S and 5S ribosomal RNA. Mutations in the 23S rRNA gene of Mgen have been linked with clinical treatment failure and high levels in vitro macrolide resistance. This mutation can be found in strains from Australia, Europe, and Asia with similarities of 91% or higher.
Resistance is also developing towards the second-line antimicrobials like fluoroquinolone.Unemo, M. & Jensen, J.S. 'Antimicrobial-resistant sexually transmitted infections: gonorrhoea and Mycoplasma genitalium'. 2016. Nat. Rev. Urol..268. Published online 10 January 2017. doi:10.1038/nrurol This resistance occurs in the parC and gyrA genes, and mutations have been found in 45.5% and 18.2% of isolates, respectively. In parC, the S83I substitution is the most common, and is associated with moxifloxacin treatment failure. However, when this mutation occurs along with the gyrA-M95I mutation, treatment failure is twice as likely. Furthermore, isolates associated with fluoroquinolone resistance also had macrolide resistant mutations.
Synthetic Genome On 6 October 2007, Craig Venter announced that a team of scientists led by Nobel laureate Hamilton Smith at the J. Craig Venter Institute had successfully constructed synthetic DNA with which they planned to make the first synthetic genome. Reporting in The Guardian, Venter said that they had stitched together a DNA strand containing 381 genes, consisting of 580,000 base pairs, based on the genome of M. genitalium. On 24 January 2008, they announced the successful creation of a synthetic bacterium, which they named Mycoplasma genitalium JCVI-1.0 (the name of the strain indicating J. Craig Venter Institute with its specimen number). They synthesised and assembled the complete 582,970-base pair genome of the bacterium. The final stages of synthesis involved cloning the DNA into the bacterium E. coli for nucleotide production and sequencing. This produced large fragments of approximately 144,000 base pairs or 1/4th of the whole genome. Finally, the products were cloned inside the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to synthesize the 580,000 base pairs. The molecular size of the synthetic bacterial genome is 360,110 kilodaltons (kDa). Printed in 10-point font, the letters of the genome cover 147 pages.
On 20 July 2012, Stanford University and the J. Craig Venter Institute announced successful simulation of the complete life cycle of a Mycoplasma genitalium cell, in the journal Cell. The entire organism is modeled in terms of its molecular components, integrating all cellular processes into a single model. Using object oriented programming to model the interactions of 28 categories of molecules, including DNA, RNA, proteins, and metabolites, and running on a 128 computer Linux cluster, the simulation takes 10 hours for a single M. genitalium cell to divide once—about the same time the actual cell takes—and generates half a gigabyte of data.
Diagnosis Mgen is a fastidious organism with prolonged growth durations. This makes detection of the pathogen in clinical specimens and subsequent isolation extremely difficult. Mgen lacks a cell wall and is therefore intrinsically resistant to antibiotics that inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis.Research has concluded that nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT) are the only viable option for detection of Mgen DNA or RNA. However, samples with positive NAAT for the pathogen should be tested for macrolide resistance mutations, which are strongly correlated to azithromycin treatment failures, owing to rapid rates of mutation of the pathogen.
According to the European guidelines, the indication for commencement of diagnosis for Mgen infection are:
Detection of nucleic acid (DNA and/or RNA) specific for Mgen in a clinical specimen Current partners of individuals who tested positive for Mgen should be treated with the same antimicrobial as the index patient If current partner does not attend for evaluation and testing, treatment with the same regimen as given to the index patient should be offered on epidemiological grounds On epidemiological grounds for sexual contacts in the previous 3 months; ideally, specimens for a Mgen NAAT should be collected before treatment and treatment should not be given before the result are available
Screening for Mgen with a combination of detection and macrolide resistance mutations will provide the adequate information required to develop personalised antimicrobial treatments, in order to optimise patient management and control the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR).Tabrizi SN et al. Multiplex Assay for Simultaneous Detection of Mycoplasma genitalium and Macrolide Resistance Using PlexZyme and PlexPrime Technology. PLoS ONE. 2016. 11(6): e0156740. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0156740
Detection of resistance Owing to the widespread macrolide resistance, samples that are positive for Mgen should ideally be followed up with an assay capable of detecting mutations that mediate antimicrobial resistance. The European Guideline on Mgen infections recommend complementing the molecular detection of Mgen with an assay capable of detecting macrolide resistance-associated mutations. Furthermore, molecular assays for quinolone resistance-associated mutations are available at specialised laboratories in suspected treatment failure due to treatment with moxifloxacin.
Treatment